This great Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun will cross the United States Monday Afternoon, 2024 April 8. All areas of the United States will see the eclipse, although a Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun will only be seen in a narrow Path of Totality across the country from Texas to Maine. NO PARTIAL PHASE OF ANY SOLAR ECLIPSE / ECLIPSE OF THE SUN IS SAFE TO LOOK AT DIRECTLY, UNLESS YOU HAVE THE PROPER EQUIPMENT AND PROPER TRAINING TO DO SO SAFELY; OTHERWISE EYE-SIGHT COULD BE DAMAGED PERMANENTLY! This graphic shows one way to safely view the partial phases of a Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun by building a Solar Pinhole Viewing Box (a.k.a. Pinhole Camera) as shown above. After building this box, you must turn your back to the Sun and allow the light from the Sun to go through the pinhole and shine on a white piece of paper on the other end of the box (NEVER LOOK THROUGH THE PINHOLE AT THE SUN!).
More Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun: Tips for Safe Viewing:
Link >>> https://buhlplanetarium2.tripod.com/FAQ/soleclipse/solareclipseviewingtips.html
(Graphic Source: Eric G. Canali, former Floor Operations Manager of the original Buhl Planetarium and Institute of Popular Science / Buhl Science Center (America's fifth major planetarium and Pittsburgh's science and technology museum from 1939 to 1991) and Founder of the South Hills Backyard Astronomers amateur astronomy club.
By Glenn A. Walsh
Reporting for SpaceWatchtower
One of the greatest coincidences in
nature is a Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun, when the
size of the Sun and the size of the Moon when viewed from Earth
during an Eclipse coincide. Such an amazing Eclipse will cross much
of the United States, as well as parts of Maritime Canada and central
Mexico, on April 8, similar to how another such Eclipse crossed much
of the United States in 2017. However, eye safety must be of
paramount importance for anyone wanting to view this miraculous
event.
The vast majority of the United States, along with much of Canada and Mexico, not within the Path of Totality of this Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun, will still experience a Partial Solar Eclipse / Partial Eclipse of the Sun. A Partial Solar Eclipse / Partial Eclipse of the Sun is when the Sun is eclipsed by the Moon, but the Moon does not block all portions of the surface of the Sun.
As with all celestial observations, views of any Eclipse are always weather-permitting.
For areas where inclement weather
precludes direct viewing of the Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse
of the Sun, or for areas of the world where this Eclipse will not be
visible in the sky, a Live-Stream Web-Cast of the event will be
available on the Internet. The Internet link to this Live-Stream
Web-Cast is available near the end of this blog-post.
During a Total
Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun, the Moon completely
obscures the surface of the Sun; it is only during the short time
when the surface of the Sun is completely blocked from view (for the
April 8 Eclipse: a maximum of approximately 4 minutes and 28 seconds - for some areas it will be less time) that the
Eclipse can be looked at without safety equipment. And during this time,
often the Solar Corona (outermost layer of the Sun's atmosphere,
which is safe to look at so long as the rest of the Sun's surface is
blocked from view) can be seen around the shadow outline of the Moon,
and planets and stars can also sometimes be seen at this time. Birds
and wildlife often begin nighttime behaviors and the air, no longer
heated by the Sun, feels cooler.
Again, the short Totality Phase of a Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun, when the surface of the Sun is completely blocked by the Moon, is the only time the Eclipse can be viewed with the naked-eyes (one-power) without special equipment to protect the eyes. Never use binoculars or a telescope to view a Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun, because the magnification of these instruments can damage the eyes, at the moment the Moon slips out of the Totality Phase.
In fact, during the short Totality Phase of a Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun, only viewing with naked-eyes (one-power) will the Eclipse be visible. The Solar Corona is too dim to see while wearing Eclipse Glasses.
At all other times other than the Totality Phase, Solar Eclipse Glasses (also simply known as Eclipse Glasses) or other protection must be used to prevent permanent eye damage! This is true during all partial phases of any Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun, when any portion of the surface of the Sun is visible.
For areas which are not within the Path of Totality where a Partial Solar Eclipse / Partial Eclipse of the Sun will be visible, Solar Eclipse Glasses (also simply known as Eclipse Glasses) or other protection must be used at all times during the Eclipse to prevent permanent eye damage!
This is also true for any Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun which is not a Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun. This includes Partial, Annular, and Hybrid Solar Eclipses / Partial, Annular, and Hybrid Eclipses of the Sun. An Annular Solar Eclipse / Annular Eclipse of the Sun occurs when the Moon is farther from the Earth than normal in the elliptical lunar orbit; then, the Moon does not appear as large as the Sun and the small (but dangerous to eyes) portion of the surface of the Sun is visible around the shadow of the Moon. A Hybrid Solar Eclipse / Hybrid Eclipse of the Sun is a combination of Annular and Total Eclipses, when the Moon moves farther and / or closer to the Earth during the Eclipse event.
The coincidence in nature of a Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun is due to the fact that the Sun is approximately 400 times larger than the Moon, but the Sun is also about 400 times further from the Moon. Hence, during a Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun, the Moon and Sun appear roughly the same size as we view the two objects in the sky, even though the Sun is much, much larger than the Moon.
This coincidence of nature will not always be the case. Since the creation of the Moon approximately 4.5 billion years ago, the Moon has been moving away from the Earth at a rate of about 1.496 inches / 3.8 centimeters per year. It is estimated that about 620 million years from now, a Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun will be an "on-again, off-again phenomenon", according mathematical astronomer Jean Meeus; he concludes the last Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun will occur 1.2 billion years from today.
Where Will This Eclipse Be Visible ?
The Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse
of the Sun will be visible early Monday Afternoon, 2024 April 8,
along a narrow strip of land known as the Path of Totality from Texas
to Maine. This includes the states of Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri,
Illinois, Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont,
New Hampshire, plus small parts of Tennessee and Michigan. This will
include several cities and populated areas including San Antonio,
Austin, Dallas / Fort Worth, Idabel OK, Little Rock AR, Poplar Bluff
MO, Cape Girardeau MO, Paducah KY, Carbondale IL, Evansville IN,
Bloomington IN, Indianapolis, Terre Haute IN, Dayton OH, Toledo OH,
Akron OH, Cleveland, Erie PA, Buffalo, Rochester NY, Syracuse NY,
Burlington VT, Montpelier VT, Lancaster NH, Caribou ME, and Presque
Isle, ME.
All other parts of the contiguous 48
states of the United States will observe a Partial Solar Eclipse /
Partial Eclipse of the Sun. Of course all observations in the sky are
weather-permitting.
In Canada, this Eclipse will be visible
in southern Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island,
Nova Scotia (Cape Breton Island), and Newfoundland before passing
into the Atlantic Ocean. This includes the cities and populated areas
of Niagara Falls ON, Hamilton ON, Montreal, Fredericton NB, and
Gander NL.
In Mexico, the Eclipse enters North
America from the Pacific Ocean at Mazatlan. The Eclipse then travels
north-east through Torreon, and enters Texas southwest of San
Antonio.
When Will This Eclipse Be Visible ?
The times of this Eclipse, or any Solar
Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun, varies from one city to another. This
is due to the fact that the Moon, and the Moon's shadow, is
continually moving throughout any such Eclipse event, along with the continuing rotation of the Earth on our planet's axis.
In general, this Eclipse begins on
Monday, 2024 April 8 in late morning in Mexico and shortly after
local Noon in Texas and concludes in Maritime Canada in the late
afternoon. The time of the Path of Totality (for this Eclipse, a
fairly long 4 minutes and 28 seconds, approximately) would occur
approximately half-way between the beginning and ending of the
Eclipse in your area. These times are based on Local Daylight Saving
Time, except in Mexico which recently converted to Local Standard
Time year-round.
If you live in or near one of the
states or cities which will observe this Eclipse, check with your
local planetarium, science center or museum, or college or high
school science department to find out the specific times in your
area. Otherwise, check an Internet browser, which may be able to
provide such specific times.
The last Total Solar Eclipse / Total
Eclipse of the Sun visible in the United States was known as the
Great American Solar Eclipse on Monday Afternoon, 2017 August 21. The
next such Eclipse visible from the 48 contiguous states will occur on
2044 August 23.
Solar Eclipses always occur at the time of the Primary Phase of New Moon. Solar Eclipses do not occur during every New Moon Primary Phase, because most of the time the Moon's shadow misses the Earth. For this Solar Eclipse, the date and time of New Moon for April (Lunation #1253) is Monday Afternoon, 2024 April 8 at 2:21 p.m. Eastern Daylight Saving Time (EDT) / 18:21 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).
Eclipses usually come in pairs, and
sometimes in threes. Hence, usually a Lunar Eclipse / Eclipse of the
Moon precedes or follows a Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun by a
couple weeks. This month a deep Penumbral Lunar Eclipse / Penumbral
Eclipse of the Moon, the first Eclipse of 2024, will precede the
April 8 Eclipse a week from today, early on Monday Morning, 2024
March 25.
How to Safely View This Eclipse &
Any Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun ---
NEVER LOOK DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY
AT ANY SOLAR ECLIPSE / ECLIPSE OF THE SUN, UNLESS YOU HAVE THE PROPER
EQUIPMENT AND PROPER TRAINING TO DO SO SAFELY !!!
First, there is
only one time when a Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the
Sun can be viewed safely, with the naked-eyes (one-power),
without the use of additional safety equipment. This is during the
very short time-span (for the April 8 Eclipse: maximum of approximately 4
minutes and 28 seconds - for some areas it will be less time) when the SURFACE OF THE SUN
IS COMPLETELY OBSCURED BY THE MOON. ANY OTHER TIME, WHEN ANY
PART OF THE SURFACE OF THE SUN IS VISIBLE, MUST BE VIEWED WITH THE
PROPER SAFETY EQUIPMENT TO PREVENT DAMAGE TO THE EYES.
Safe Ways to View a Solar Eclipse /
Eclipse of the Sun, When Any Portion of Solar Surface is Visible -
1) "Solar
Eclipse Glasses” – Over
the last 30 years, technology has provided a safe way to view a Solar
Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun. “Solar Eclipse Glasses,” or often
just called “Eclipse Glasses,” have lenses made of aluminized and
optical-grade Mylar (SPECIAL
NOTE: Mylar
used on Mylar balloons or food wrappers are NOT optical-grade),
so dense that only light from the Sun can be seen with such Eclipse
Glasses (more than 1,000 times darker than normal sunglasses!).
Cheap, fake Eclipse Glasses have been advertised for sale, but
should NEVER
BE USED!
Solar Eclipse Glasses should ALWAYS be worn ANY TIME when directly viewing the Sun or when viewing any reflection of the Sun, even when there is no Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun (including when looking for large, naked-eye-visible Sunspots on the surface of the Sun).
Legitimate
Solar Eclipse Glasses should include the following number printed on
the side of the glasses: ISO 12312-2. This number means that pair of
Solar Eclipse Glasses meets the safety requirements of the ISO
12312-2 International Standard.
To
avoid the purchase of fake Eclipse Glasses, only buy or use Eclipse
Glasses approved by the American Astronomical Society; go to this
web-page on the American Astronomical Society web-site to read a
list of the approved vendors of safe Eclipse Glasses:
< https://eclipse.aas.org/resources/solar-filters >
Some
local planetaria and science centers and museums are selling Eclipse
Glasses in their gift shops. Also, a very limited number of Eclipse
Glasses are being given-away at a limited number of local libraries
(one pair of Eclipse Glasses per person).
The
following are instructions on how to properly handle and use Eclipse
Glasses:
a) Eclipse
Glasses are fragile and should be treated gently at
all times. It would be best to store the Eclipse
Glasses in an envelope.
b) BEFORE
EVERY USE, point the Eclipse Glasses toward an artificial light
source (i.e. lit light bulb). If any light can be seen coming
through the Eclipse Glasses, or if any damage (scratches, tears or
small holes or pin-holes) is seen on the lenses (check front and
back of both lenses), or if the Mylar lenses are starting to
separate from the cardboard frames of the Eclipse Glasses, that
pair of Eclipse Glasses should be discarded (tear or cut Eclipse
Glasses into small pieces, so no one accidentally uses them). USE
OF DAMAGED ECLIPSE GLASSES WOULD ALLOW DANGEROUS SUNLIGHT TO ENTER
THE EYES, WHICH COULD LEAD TO EYE-SIGHT DAMAGE.
c) For
people wearing eye-glasses, Eclipse Glasses should be placed
over-top the eye-glasses--that is, sunlight should enter the Eclipse
Glasses before entering the eye-glasses.
d) PARTICULARLY IF YOU WEAR EYE-GLASSES: Solar Eclipse Glasses frames are made of cardboard and can easily fall off, particularly if the Solar Eclipse Glasses are placed over-top eye-glasses. Particularly if you place Solar Eclipse Glasses over-top eye-glasses, hold onto the Solar Eclipse Glasses WITH BOTH HANDS while in use, to be sure the Solar Eclipse Glasses do not inadvertently fall off and your eyes are exposed directly to sunlight.
Always move your head away from the Sun before removing Solar Eclipse Glasses, anytime you wish to take off the Solar Eclipse Glasses.
e) NEVER use
Eclipse Glasses with any camera (including cell-phone or smart-phone
cameras), telescope, binoculars, or any optical aid or device
(except eye-glasses) that magnifies an image (or reflection
of a magnified image); o be sGlasses are only designed to be used
with the naked-eyes (one-power) or with eye-glasses.
f) DO
NOT attempt to clean or disinfect Eclipse Glasses lenses
with water or any other cleaning agent. If Eclipse Glasses are
carefully taken care-of, including storage in an envelope, cleaning
lenses should not be necessary. If dust is a concern, do nothing
more than gently blow-off dust.
g) NEVER use
any "home-made" or "hand-g wade" Solar Eclipse
Glasses, or any Solar Eclipse Glasses produced by a vendor that is
not approved by the American Astronomical Society. Such Eclipse
Glasses have no quality control in production, hence there is no way
to know if such Eclipse Glasses are safe for eye-sight.
h) Eclipse
Glasses are NOT toys. ECLIPSE GLASSES SHOULD ONLY BE USED BY
CHILDREN, WITH ADULT SUPERVISION !
i) Best if Solar Eclipse Glasses are used three minutes at a time. Always move your head and eyes away from the Sun before removing Solar Eclipse Glasses, to rest your eyes.
j) When using Solar Eclipse Glasses, do not move; nothing except the Sun can be seen when the Solar Eclipse Glasses are being worn.
k) Do not drive any type of vehicle or operate any type of machinery when Solar Eclipse Glasses are being worn.
l) Do not use Solar Eclipse Glasses if you have a diseased eye, or after eye surgery.
m) Solar Eclipse Glasses are designed for use over a period of three years. After three years, it would be best to acquire a new pair of Solar Eclipse Glasses.
Solar
Pinhole Viewing Box – The
graphic at the beginning of this blog-post shows an indirect
way to
safely view the partial phases of a Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the
Sun (which includes Solar Eclipses / Eclipses of the Sun described
as "Annular" or "Hybrid"), by building a Solar
Pinhole Viewing Box (known as a Pinhole Camera). After building this
box, you
must turn your back to the Sun and
allow the light from the Sun to shine through a pinhole (placed in a
sheet of aluminum foil, adhered to the center of one end of the box)
and shine on a white piece of typing, printer, or photocopy paper at
the other end of the box; a small image of the Partial Solar Eclipse
/ Partial Eclipse of the Sun (which includes Solar Eclipses /
Eclipses of the Sun described as "Annular" or "Hybrid")
can then be seen projected on the white piece of paper. Do not
expect a large or bright image of the Sun, since the pinhole cannot
enlarge or brighten the image. NEVER
LOOK THROUGH THE PINHOLE AT THE SUN! Of
course, there are several variations on the idea of the Solar
Pinhole Viewing Box including the simple use of two pieces of paper,
one white with the other having the pinhole; in forests, natural
pinhole cameras are sometimes formed through the dense foliage, with
small images of the eclipsed Sun appearing on the ground.
3)
Public Observing Events – Often
Science and educational institutions will sponsor public observing
events where professional astronomical equipment, operated by
trained astronomers, provide safe public viewing of a Solar Eclipse
/ Eclipse of the Sun or Solar Transit of a Planet. Such institutions
may also include live Internet video-streaming of the event from
NASA or other science organizations, particularly for a Solar
Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun where the institution's telescope
observation cannot show a Total Eclipse, or when weather precludes
local telescope observations of the event. Check with a local
planetarium, astronomical observatory, science center or science
museum, the science department (particularly if there is an
astronomy or physics department) of a local college or university
(or, possibly, high school), amateur astronomy club, or local
library, to see if they are sponsoring such an event.
4)
SHADE RATING NUMBER 14 WELDER'S GLASS – SHADE
RATING NUMBER 14 WELDER'S GLASS (AND
ONLY WELDER'S GLASS RATED AT
SHADE NUMBER 14, THE DARKEST SHADE AVAILABLE, IS STRONG ENOUGH TO BE
SAFE FOR EYE-SIGHT) is safe enough for
normal welding jobs and may be safe
(but there are no guarantees) to view a Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of
the Sun; welder's glass is designed specifically for welding jobs,
not for solar observing. HOWEVER,
only use Welder's Glass rated at Shade Number 14; as with
sunglasses, it is NOT SAFE to
stack several lighter shades of welder's glass together. Although
Shade Rating Number 14 Welder's Glass may
be safe, since the Sun is so bright, using a
Shade Rating Number 14 Welder's Glass can be uncomfortable.
5) Internet or Television – Of course, the safest way to view any special solar event is on an Internet Web-Cast or a Television Newscast or special program. Often during special solar events such a Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun or a Solar Transit of a Planet, professional organizations such as NASA, TimeandDate.com, Los Angeles' Griffith Observatory, and Slooh Community Observatory provide web-casts on the Internet of such special events; check the specific web-site for a schedule of such web-casts. For a very special event, sometimes television stations and / or networks, particularly Cable Television Channels specializing in news or Science, will also broadcast the event; check local listings for time and channel.
Solar
Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun Research ---
NASA,
academic institutions, and Citizen Scientists will be conducting
scientific research during the April 8 Eclipse. Such research is
nothing new. It was during the 1919 Total Solar Eclipse / Total
Eclipse of the Sun that astronomers confirmed Albert Einstein's
General Theory of Relativity.
On
April 8, NASA will launch three sounding rockets from Wallops
Island, Virginia, to study how the sudden drop in sunlight during
the Eclipse affects Earth's Upper Atmosphere. The first rocket will
be launched 35 minutes before local peak Eclipse. The second rocket
will be launched during local peak Eclipse, when the Earth's
Ionosphere experiences maximum shielding from solar radiation. The
third rocket will be launched 35 minutes after the local peak
Eclipse as solar radiation once again reaches the Ionosphere.
Other
NASA research will include chasing the Eclipse with NASA's
High-Altitude Research Airplanes, Airborne Imaging and
Spectroscopic Observations of the Solar Corona, and the Super Dual
Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN) where radar signals bounced off
the Ionosphere will be analyzed.
Fifty-three
teams made up of 750 student participants from 75 participating
academic institutions will be involved in the Nationwide Eclipse
Ballooning Project. Engineering teams and Atmospheric Science teams
will also be studying the Earth's Ionosphere. This will include
live-stream video, weather sensors, and individually-designed
experiments. One team will use the 34-meter Goldstone Apple Valley
Radio Telescope (GAVRT) to observe solar “active regions”,
which often have sunspots.
NASA
also has several research projects for which the general public can
participate as Citizen Scientists. This includes Citizen Science experiments to study the Sun, Earth and Earth's Environment, and studies of animal and insect behavior during the Eclipse. Near the end of this blog-post
is an Internet link to a listing of these projects.
Live-Stream Web-Cast of Eclipse, for areas with inclement weather or parts of the world where Eclipse is not visible in the sky:
Link >>> https://www.timeanddate.com/live/eclipse-solar-2024-april-8
Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun: Tips for Safe Viewing:
Link >>> https://buhlplanetarium2.tripod.com/FAQ/soleclipse/solareclipseviewingtips.html
NASA Citizen Science Projects During the Eclipse Regarding Studies of the Sun and Earth & Earth's Environment:
Link >>> https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/future-eclipses/eclipse-2024/eclipse-2024-citizen-science/
NASA Citizen Science Projects During the Eclipse Regarding Studies of Animal & Insect Behavior:
Link >>> https://science.https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/skywatching/sense-the-solar-eclipse-with-nasas-eclipse-soundscapes-project/nasa.gov/solar-system/skywatching/sense-the-solar-eclipse-with-nasas-eclipse-soundscapes-project/
Internet Links to Additional Information ---
Sun: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun
Moon: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon
Solar Corona: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_corona
NASA Studies Solar & Earth Atmospheres during Eclipse:
Link >>> https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/future-eclipses/eclipse-2024/eclipse-2024-science/
Related Blog-Posts ---
"Photos: Total Solar Eclipse Viewed in Cleveland." Sat., 2024 June 8.
"100 Years Ago: U.S. Scientist Questions Evidence Proving General Theory of Relativity." Wed., 2019 Nov. 13.
"Great American Solar Eclipse Next Monday: Some Ways to See It Safely." Mon. 2017 Aug. 14.
Source: Glenn A. Walsh Reporting for SpaceWatchtower, a project of Friends of the Zeiss
"U.S. Solar Eclipse April 8: Prepare for Safe Viewing"
Monday, 2024 March 18.
Artificial Intelligence not used in the writing of this article.
© Copyright 2024 Glenn A. Walsh, All Rights Reserved
Like This Post? Please Share!
More Astronomy & Science News - SpaceWatchtower 'X' / Twitter Feed:
Link >>> https://twitter.com/spacewatchtower
Astronomy & Science Links: Link >>> http://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/#sciencelinks
Want to receive SpaceWatchtower blog posts in your in-box ?
Send request to < spacewatchtower@planetarium.cc >.
gaw
Glenn A. Walsh, Informal Science Educator & Communicator (For more than 50 years! - Since Monday Morning, 1972 June 12):
Link >>> http://buhlplanetarium2.tripod.com/weblog/spacewatchtower/gaw/
Electronic Mail: < gawalsh@planetarium.cc >
Project Director, Friends of the Zeiss: Link >>> http://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/fotz/
SpaceWatchtower Editor / Author: Link >>> http://spacewatchtower.blogspot.com/
Formerly Astronomical Observatory Coordinator & Planetarium Lecturer, original Buhl Planetarium & Institute of Popular Science (a.k.a. Buhl Science Center), America's fifth major planetarium and Pittsburgh's science & technology museum from 1939 to 1991.
Formerly Trustee, Andrew Carnegie Free Library and Music Hall, Pittsburgh suburb of Carnegie, Pennsylvania, the fourth of only five libraries where both construction and endowment funded by famous industrialist & philanthropist Andrew Carnegie.
Author of History Web Sites on the Internet --
* Buhl Planetarium, Pittsburgh: Link >>> http://www.planetarium.cc Buhl Observatory: Link >>> http://spacewatchtower.blogspot.com/2016/11/75th-anniversary-americas-5th-public.html
* Adler Planetarium, Chicago: Link >>> http://adlerplanetarium.tripod.com
* Astronomer, Educator, Optician John A. Brashear: Link >>> http://johnbrashear.tripod.com
* Andrew Carnegie & Carnegie Libraries: Link >>> http://www.andrewcarnegie.cc
* Other Walsh-Authored Blog & Web-Sites: Link >>> https://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/gawweb.html
